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Muskox in the NWT

For 8 months of the year, the muskoxen's (Ovibos moschatus) range is covered with snow. In the high arctic islands, 4 months of the year is spent in darkness with temperatures of -30 and -40° C combined with winds from frequent blizzards. Without their remarkable two-layered coat, muskoxen would never survive such extreme conditions. To the Inuit, they are known as "Oomingmak" or the bearded one.

Photo of a muskox and calf The muskox is covered all over, except for the horns, hooves, lips and nose, with an under layer of short fine wool of exceptional warmth. A much longer outer coat composed of shaggy hair up to 62 cm long covers the animal, hanging nearly to the ground and giving the muskox its characteristic appearance.

The coat is generally dark brown or nearly black. About the shoulders it is extremely shaggy and forms a distinct mane, especially noticeable on bulls. Behind the shoulders is a short white or creamy yellow "saddle". The lower legs have light brown to white "stockings".

In May when arctic temperatures begin to rise, muskoxen start to shed their inner coats, becoming untidy and tattered as the woolly hair falls off in patches with pieces left clinging to the long outer coat. Rocks and bushes about the tundra become littered with bits of fleece, which may be used by small birds for nest building. The new undercoat grows throughout the summer and by August, muskoxen are again sleek and dark. The outer hair is not shed at any specific time, but probably discarded and replaced continuously throughout the year.

Other adaptations for cold are small furry ears, and a very short tail hidden beneath the coat. Rounded hooves with sharp rims provide traction on ice and rocky surfaces. Muskoxen have exceptionally good hearing, eyesight and sense of smell. In their most northerly ranges they experience no difficulty in moving about and locating food in winter darkness.

Muskox horns begin to grow when a calf is 4 to 5 weeks old, and continue to grow until the muskox is about 6 years old. The large and sweeping horns of an adult bull merge at the bases to form a massive, heavily ridged and furrowed boss. On cows, the boss is smaller and divided in the middle by a tuft of white hair. The horns become darker with age, and may also be stained brown from vegetation when the bulls butt at peat banks in summer. The largest set of muskox horns on record, found near Perry River, measured 80 cm between the tips.

Because of their shaggy coats and massiveness, muskoxen appear to be extremely large animals. In fact, a full grown bull may measure only between 130 and 150 cm at the shoulder, which is about the height of a man's chest. The average weight of a male is about 340 kg, while females usually weigh about 90 kg less. In captivity, muskoxen reach much greater weights as a result of better nutrition.

Distribution

About 90,000 years ago when the Bering Straits were dry land, muskoxen crossed into North America from Siberia. When the last glacier covered North America, muskoxen survived in ice-free areas or "glacial refugia" in the northern arctic islands and Greenland. As the ice retreated, they spread throughout northern Canada and Greenland, then westward into Alaska.

Today most muskoxen in Canada are found on the arctic islands, especially Banks, Ellesmere, Melville and Victoria Islands. On the mainland they are found in substantial numbers in the area north of Great Bear Lake up to the arctic coast, and in the Queen Maud Gulf area. Lesser numbers are present in the Thelon Game Sanctuary and southwest to Artillery Lake.

There are approximately 105,000 muskoxen in the NWT with the majority of these occurring on Banks (approximately 70000 non calf animals in 2001) and NW Victoria Island (approximately 30,000 non calf animals in 2001).

Map of muskox distribution

Behaviour

Muskoxen are gregarious animals and live in loosely organized herds. Herd size and composition vary with season, range conditions and the number of bulls in the population. An average herd is about 15 animals. After the rut in July and August, the herds increase as bulls and/or mixed groups join together. The presence of wolves may cause an increase in herd size in response to harassment. Some groups of muskoxen may merge together for feeding, while in severe winters large herds may fragment as a result of limited forage.

Unlike caribou, muskoxen do not undertake long migrations, but in some areas, such as near Coppermine, winter and summer ranges are distinct and as much as 160 km apart. On treks between ranges, a dominant bull or cow leads the group.

The dominant bull is usually one of the largest animals in the herd. He will likely have large, dark coloured, cracked horns, and clinging to his coat in summer will be a great deal of unshed wool. When the dominant bull walks through the herd, subordinate animals move out of his way and stand watching. When danger threatens, the dominant bull is often the last member of the herd to respond and the first to relax when all is clear. In all-cow herds, a cow may display the same characteristics of leadership.

The influence of the dominant or lead animal is shown most clearly when a herd encounters some obstacle such as a deep river or steep bank. While other herd members mill about, the dominant bull appears to take the situation in hand and leads the others past the obstacle. In cases of disturbance from man, machines or wolf attack, the dominant bull again takes charge. Photo of a herd of muskox

At the approach of wolves the herd often runs towards high ground or to an area of shallow snow. At the top of the high ground, the dominant bull stops and turns to face the threat while other herd members close ranks behind him in a characteristic defence formation. Animals shuffle and agitatedly change position while they watch their foe. Such a formation is extremely effective against wolf attack as long as no animal allows itself to become separated from the line of defence. Wolves will circle the herd and attack individual animals that charge out. If the herd is well organized, the wolves will eventually give up to search for easier game. However, if an animal does become separated, or if wolves encounter a lone animal, its chances of survival are considerably lessened.

Normally a full-grown muskox is formidable prey for a wolf and can easily defend itself by charging with its horns. But if the wolves begin worrying the muskox with intermittent attacks it becomes increasingly tired and vulnerable. Eventually, unless it can break away, it will likely fall victim to the wolves.

Reproduction

Throughout most of the year, muskoxen are placid animals. But towards the end of summer, the arctic stillness is broken by the crash of muskox horns as the bulls challenge each other for supremacy of the herds.

A lead bull must continuously defend his position. Skirmishes may occur at any time of year, but when the rut begins, fighting between bulls becomes serious and prolonged. Normally a mere threat from a dominant bull is sufficient to frighten away an intruder, but at the height of the rut, threats give way to noisy and dramatic battles with bulls charging each other and meeting head on with resounding thuds. The impact of the great blows is absorbed by the thickness of the horns and skull, and the weaker contender usually moves off before much damage is done. During the battles, cows and immature animals pay little attention and continue grazing placidly.

Rutting reaches its peak in late summer and courtship continues through September. As the dominant bull establishes his position, the herds change to harem-like groups composed of one adult bull with several cows, calves and sub-adult bulls. Defeated bulls either group together or become solitary. Young bulls may aggressively try to rejoin herds, while older ones seem content to wander about the tundra alone, feeding and sleeping.

The period of gestation for muskoxen is 8 to 9 months. Calves are born at similar times throughout the NWT despite differing temperatures on the most northerly and most southerly ranges. Calving has been observed from the first week in April until mid-May. Temperatures are still well below freezing and the snow cover is deepest when the calves are born, but unless conditions of extraordinary wind or freezing rain occur, new-born calves are well able to survive the harsh conditions.

Muskox calves can stand upright and suckle within a few minutes of birth. For the first few weeks, they remain close to their mothers and within the safety of the herd. Lone cows and calves have been observed far from a herd, but this must be unusual behaviour, for without herd protection, a cow and her new-born calf have little hope of surviving a wolf or grizzly bear attack.

As the calf grows, it moves around the herd's feeding area and plays with other young animals, but at any sign of danger it rushes to its mother, sometimes hiding itself completely under her flowing skirts.

Muskox calves are almost pig-like in appearance. They are born with short woolly coats, which begin shedding in July. By September, the small muskox is a miniature replica of its elders with new underhair and longer over-hair. During the third winter, the full coat or pelage of an adult muskox develops.

The calf may stay with its mother until well into its first year. In productive areas, the females produce calves in successive years and weaning probably occurs in late fall or early winter. In less productive areas, such as the High Arctic, the female may only breed in alternate years and the yearling may continue to nurse until it is 15 to 18 months old. Prolonged lactation provides extra nourishment during harsh winter months when food is difficult to obtain.

History

Prior to the 18th century, it is likely that muskoxen played only a minor part as a food source to the native peoples of the Northwest Territories.

The Chipewyan Indians who lived along the treeline from Hudson Bay west to the Coppermine River harvested muskoxen only when their traditional foods of caribou and fish were not available. The same was likely true of the early Inuit who lived primarily in coastal regions and hunted caribou and sea mammals.

Over the course of the 18th century as more Europeans arrived to open up the new land, native people began slowly to abandon traditional patterns of living. They spent more time in, or traveling to, settlements to benefit from trade items such as food and guns. The Chipewyans who travelled overland to Churchill, Manitoba, began killing muskoxen encountered along the way. Some of the meat they used for themselves when traveling through areas where caribou were scarce, but much of it was sold, together with hides, to trading posts.

By the 1820s, muskoxen had also become more important to the coastal Inuit, who required more food as the population of their communities increased. They began to travel farther inland and as they reached prime muskox habitat, many herds were hunted nearly to extinction.

At the same time as indigenous peoples were becoming increasingly dependent on muskoxen, explorers and whalers were killing many thousands for fresh meat and for hides which had become fashionable in Europe as sleigh robes.

Muskoxen are particularly susceptible to over-hunting for several reasons. One is that they are generally unwary and easy to stalk. The second is that because they do not range far, they are easily located by people familiar with their home territories. Finally, and perhaps saddest of all, is that their defence position, so effective against wolves, becomes suicidal when practiced against men with guns.

By 1900, the combination of demands for meat and hides, together with the introduction of guns, had led to serious declines in muskox populations on mainland Canada. Weather, perhaps fall icing storms, may have reduced muskox numbers on Banks and Victoria Islands. In 1917, the Canadian government, realizing that the animals were in danger of being completely exterminated, prohibited trading in hides and put muskoxen under complete protection. In 1927 the Thelon Game Sanctuary was established in the Thelon River drainage to protect muskoxen there. Since then, the animals have made a slow but steady comeback both in numbers and in occupied range.

By l967, muskoxen had increased so significantly that hunting under a quota system was permitted in several Inuit communities. By 1990 community quotas had risen to around 3500 of which 2000 were assigned solely to Banks Island.

As interest in Canada's north grows, unique northern animals such as muskox could become tourist attractions in National Wildlife areas or parks. But even for those Canadians who will never see a muskox in the wild, it is important that these ancient animals be preserved, for they are a link with a time before man ever set foot in North America. In a world where time goes by so quickly, it is reassuring to know that somewhere in the far north of our country, there is an animal still placidly grazing its way across the tundra in much the same way as it was 90,000 years ago.

Economics

In order to calculate an economic value of the subsistence harvest of muskox, the replacement value for purchasing beef instead can be used. In 1994, the residents of Sachs Harbour harvested 222 muskox for subsistence use. At an average yield of approximately 90 kg of meat/muskox and a beef replacement cost of $14.00/kg (the average cost of beef in small communities), the economic value of the subsistence muskox harvest in 1994 was about $279 000 (222 x 90 x 14.00).

In 2002-2003, 93 guided sport hunts were conducted for muskoxen in the Northwest Territories. Of these, 44 were on Banks Island, 7 on northwest Victoria Island, and 42 on the mainland (Inuvik and Sahtu regions). Guided muskox hunt cost approximately $3000 US. Thus 93 guided sport hunts generate approximately $279,000 US ($372,000 CDN) in outfitting fees in the NWT in 2002-2003. This value excludes dollars spent on airline tickets, hotel accommodations, meals, and local purchases of arts and crafts.

Year Quota Commercial Harvest ^a Sport Hunts Subsistence Harvest

1970 Protected - - -

1971-1977 7 - - Unknown

1978-1980 150 - - Unknown

1981-1982 2,000 260 - Unknown

1982-1983 2,000 96 - Unknown

1983-1984 2,000 83 - Unknown

1984-1985 2,000 50 - Unknown

1985-1986 2,000 323 - Unknown

1986-1987 2,000 177 - Unknown

1987-1988 2,000 98 - Unknown

1988-1989 2,000 31 - Unknown

1989-1990^b 2,000 87 - 317

1990-1991^b 2,000 556 - 101

1991-1992^b 5,000 2,031 - 102

1992-1993^b 5,000 1,798 17 132

1993-1994^b 5,000 738 36 222

1994-1995^b 10,000 - 64 240

1995-1996^b 10,000 - 37 232

1996-1997^b 10,000 - 70 238

1997-1998 10,000 1,250 36 Unknown

1998-1999 10,000 - 33 91^c

1999-2000 10,000 1,450 10 38 ^c

2000-2001 10,000 - 39 192^c

2001-2002 10,000 532 48 355^c

2002-2003 10,000 101 44 127^c

^a - Commercial harvest documented by RWED. Muskox harvested for export.
^b - Subsistence harvest data from Inuvialuit Harvest Study (2003).
^c - Subsistence harvest estimated by RWED.

Some communities in the Western and Central Arctic allow part of their quota to be used by sport hunters. For several thousand dollars, a southern hunter can purchase a package hunt complete with guides. Snowmachines may be used to within 3.25 km of the muskoxen. The animals are then stalked on foot.

The economic potential of the muskox's inner wool or "qiviut" is slowly being explored in the Northwest Territories. This wool is of exceptional quality, having the weight and warmth of cashmere. In Alaska, a muskox domestication project has been established for the purpose of developing a cottage industry that specializes in woven or knitted articles.

Harvest Levels

The muskox of Banks Island are harvested by the people of Sachs Harbour for subsistence use, sport hunts and a commercial hunt for the sale of meat to southern destinations. Although caribou is preferred, the residents of Sachs Harbour utilize the muskox on Banks Island as a food source.

Guided sport hunts for non-residents generate income for the community. In 1981, the commercial harvest for muskox began. In 1991/1992, 2213 muskox were harvested out of a quota of 5000 animals. This was the single largest harvest year to date and the quota was increased to 10000 in 1994.

Year Quota Harvest

1972 Protected 0

1990-1991 2,000 546

1991-1992 5,000 2,213

1992-1993 5,000 1,922

1993-1994 5,000 949

1994-1995 10,000 520

1995-1996 10,000 165

1996-1997 10,000 Not Available

1997-1998 10,000 1,300

1998-1999 10,000 91

1999-2000 10,000 1,488

2000-2001 10,000 192

2001-2002 10,000 887

2002-2003 10,000 228

Efforts are underway to increase the market for muskox meat in southern Canada, but it seems unlikely that the total quota will be reached. In order to reduce the total population, current harvest levels would have to be increased beyond their historic maximum levels, which seems unlikely, or another means of reduction will have to be found. The existing harvest structure is doing little to curb the population growth.

Management

Muskoxen are harvested under quota on three areas on the Arctic islands (Melville Island I/MX/01, Banks Island I/MX/02, and northwest Victoria Island I/MX/03) and four areas on the mainland (I/MX/05, I/MX/06, S/MX/01, and U/MX/01). On Melville, Banks and northwest Victoria island the hunting season is open from 15 August to 31 March for resident and non resident hunters.

Hunting season for muskox on Banks Island is open from 15 August to 30 April. Management of the muskox is dependant upon monitoring the trends in population size and survival rates. As a result of population increases, a quota system was instituted, with a 1971 quota of 7 muskoxen which was raised to 150 in 1978. In 1981, because of concerns from the local people of Sachs Harbour over the effect upon caribou the quota was raised to 2000 in an attempt to slow the population growth (A. Gunn, C. Shank and B. Mclean,1991).

The restriction to subsistence use was also removed, allowing for the possibility of a commercial harvest. The quota for muskox is presently 10 000.

Despite the rapid increase in the population number, the GNWT has decided not to institute a muskox cull on Banks Island. The cost would be enormous and there are logistic problems as well. The size of the cull would have to be extremely large and the biggest problem would be what to do with the meat. The market is not large enough to support it and wasting the meat would be unethical. (Banks Island muskox/caribou management plan, March 1992. Draft). By not actively attempting to reduce the population, then it is allowed to continue naturally with the population number possibly being controlled be some other factor such as weather, unavailability of sufficient food etc. This population reduction could occur due to increased mortality, reduced reproduction, or a combination of the two. The hope here would have to be that the number does not fall so low that the population cannot respond or that the population is no longer available to the local people who utilize it as a food source.